Primary education Essay Example for Free

Primary development EssayIndia has made large strides in educating its population of more than a billion people, yet a lot remains to be done. It is commonplace now that education is both intrinsically valuable and excessively instrumental for economic well up-being, and this is true for individuals and entire nations. No country in the world has been able to develop without the spread of mass education. An educated population is a prerequisite for take-off into mellow economic growth. Table 1 in the appendix shows literacy rate for India as a whole and by sex. It also shows the decadal pass judgment of change from 1901 to the present.2 Literacy rates have increased for both males and females, and though the latter continues to lag behind the former, there has been a narrowing of the male-female gap in literacy from 24. 8% in 1991 to 21. 7% in 2001. In 2001, the absolute make sense of illiterates declined historically for the first time by nearly 32 million. In terms of responsibility-wise performance, Kerala continues to occupy first rove as it has done historically on the other hand, densely populated states like Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar are yet to overcome their educational inertia. 3The average figures for India as a whole hide a great deal of variation among states. Table 2 in the appendix provides literacy rates for states for the years 1991 and 2001, for the population as a whole, by sex and also provides the decadal rate of change. In 2001, Kerala, Maharashtra and Himachal Pradesh had more than 75% of their population of 7+ years literate. On the other hand, even in 2001, less(prenominal) than half of Bihars population of seven years and above was literate with female literacy rate only if 33. 6%. In terms of zones, states in the South and West outperform states in the North and East.2. Primary Education Primary education refers to the education of children between the ages 6-11 years (grades 1-5). Universalization of Primary E ducation (UPE) is a constitutional provision in India and there has been a steady expansion in the spread of elementary education since Indian independence in 1947. The Indian educational system is the second largest in the world after China. In 2001-02, there were nearly 0. 66 million primary schools in India 1 This occupy has been undertaken as part of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals Project.2 Before the 1991 census, only those belonging to the age-group 0-4 years were excluded from the population in order to compute literacy rates and the basis of the computation was the entire population. From the 1991 census onward, literacy rates were computed based on the population aged 7+ years and above. 3 In Bihar, Nagaland and Manipur as well as Delhi and Chandigarh, the absolute number of illiterates has increased in the 1990s. 4 providing access to 84% of habitations with a primary school located within a standoffishness of one kilometer.Between 1997 and 2002, the gr oss primary school enrolment rate4 for India was 111 for males and 92 for females. The net primary school enrolment rate5 on the other hand was only 78 for males and 64 for females. The net primary school attendance rate between 1999 and 2002 was 79 for males and 73 for females. However, of the children who entered primary school, only 68% reached grade 5 between 1995 and 1999 (UNICEF, 2004). Table 3 provides data on gross primary school enrolments by sex between 1950-51 and 2001-2002.As can be seen from the put off there has been a steady increase in the numbers of boys and girls attending primary school over time. In Table 4, state-wise enrolment of boys and girls as a percentage of their age-group is provided for 1997-1998. Girls enrolment has been steadily increasing over time and in 2001-02, nearly 45% of girls in the age-group 6-11 were enrolled in school. These statistics are heartening because at least until the 1990s, one of the most dismal aspects of Indias education syst em was the large percentage of the population in the younger age groups that were out of school.Socio-economic disparities Despite the loaded constitutional backing for the provision of primary education in India6 and its expansion over time, the system is characterized not only by low achievements but also by large unevenness of achievements. Huge gaps remain between rural and urban areas, and the probability of getting any education at all sagaciously depends on gender, caste and income. Women, scheduled castes and tribes and the poor are faced with formidable barriers when it comes to getting basic education. Of the 200 million children in the age group 6-14, it is estimated that 59 million are out of school.Of these 35 million are girls and 24 million are boys (Ministry of Human Development, GOI). Apart from socio-economic determinants, the educational infrastructure and the management and the memorial tablet of the educational system in India are far from efficient or suffic ient. The government is the largest provider of education in India with only about 10% of primary schools owned by the private sector. 7 The quality of education provided by the public education system is low which translates into low educational abilities even for those who are able to complete primary education cycle.Moreover, there is a lot of waste in the educational system with dropout rates as high as 40% for the country as a whole and in some Indian states, they are as high as 75%. Though the number of primary 4 Gross primary school enrolment rate is computed as the number of children enrolled in primary school regardless of age dual-lane by the population of that age group. 5 Net primary school enrolment rate is computed as the number of children in that age group enrolled in primary school divided by the population of that age group. 6 In 2002, the Supreme Court of India decreed that free primary education was a constitutional right.7 Around 3% of private schools are aided by the government, which makes government intervention in the education sector even greater. 5 schools in the country increased, more than 1 lakh8 habitations still do not have access to a primary school within a duration of one kilometer. Teacher-pupil ratios are inadequate less than 2 teachers are available in rural areas to teach a class size of around century students. Teacher motivation and teaching incentives are also very weak. India perhaps has the highest rate of teacher truancy in the world. Poverty and Education.Empirical evidence strongly shows that, both at the level of the household as well as at the level of the country, there is a positive relationship between income (and wealth) and educational attainment. More income simply means more resources available to spend on the acquisition of education. With more than 250 million people in India living on less than a $1 a day, poverty remains a major barrier to educational access. Although education is provided free by t he government, the cost of uniforms, textbooks and transportation cost are beyond the reach of many households (Tilak, 2004).Added to these direct costs are the indirect (opportunity) costs of wage/domestic labor which children perform and the costs of getting education become considerable for households. Graphs 1 and 2 in the appendix show simple regressions of literacy rates for sixteen states against state poverty rates and state per capita income for 2001. As is expected, literacy rates decline with poverty and rise with per capita incomes. State per capita incomes seem to explain literacy rates better than poverty rates.Filmer and Pritchett (2001) use Demographic Health adopt data for India find that the gap in enrolment between the highest and the lowest wealth class is as much as 52 percentage points. Gupta (2003) using the 52nd round of National Sample Survey data finds that the percentage of people who have completed five years of schooling declines as one descends mani pulation deciles. In the lowest consumption decile, the proportion of people who have not completed the primary school cycle is greater than 80%. 9 piece of music poverty status and income class are strong determinants of who goes to school and for how long, they do not make up the whole story.Indian states of Kerala and Himachal Pradesh even with fewer resources at their disposal have been able to achieve much better educational and health outcomes compared to rich states such as Punjab and Haryana in India. This is true even when we learn at cross-country outcomes. For example, Sri Lanka and Botswana do much better in education and health terms than would be predicted based on their level of resources the Latin American countries do much worse given their resources (Mehrotra and Jolly, 1998). 8 One lakh is equal to 100,000. 9These graphs are meant to be illustrative of the association between resources and education and do not claim any direction of causality. The relationship b etween resources and educational attainment is bidirectional. The poor cannot afford schooling. With little human capital, the opportunities to escape determined poverty are very restricted and the poor can be trapped in a low education, low income vicious cycle crosswise generations. A large literature has analyzed both theoretically and empirically persistence of poverty inter-generationally due to lack of resources to invest in education.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Essay Example for Free

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart EssayFranz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) were the ii great figures of the last thread of the eighteenth century. They were not work force of the same generation, but they were contemporaries in the sense that they influenced cardinal an otherwise, and there is a kind of likeness about them which makes them be wide together as the outstanding representatives of their own particular occlusion.That period, known variously as the get along with of Haydn and Mozart, the Viennese Period, or the Classical Period, is susceptible to two interpretations, dep finising upon whether the emphasis is placed on its relation to the preceding or to the succeeding period. If the relation to the preceding period is to be stressed, the age of Haydn and Mozart should properly be called the Classical Period because it marks the culmination of the principles of monophonic style and pure indep land upent musical form, the growth of which ha d pronounced the period of Gluck, Stamitz, and C.P. E. Bach. If, on the other hand, its relation to the succeeding period is to be emphasized, it must be looked upon as a transitional period pencil lead to, or forming the beginning of, the Viennese Period of Beethoven. In the firest case the formal and stylistic perfection of Mozart, and to a less extent of Haydn, is considered as a culmination, as an end in itself in the second case that perfection is considered as a necessary but secondary step in an evolutionary chain leading to the achievement of a new expressive medium.(Sieghard Brandenburg, 1998) Franz Joseph Haydn was born in Rohrau, lower Austria, on March 31, 1732. As a child he went to weather in the house of a relative, Johann Matthias Frankh, who gave him a thorough musical training. Between 1740 and 1748 Haydn was a chorister at St. Stephens Cathedral in Vienna. During that period he earned his living by teaching, playing the harpsichord, and doing hack work, but all the while immersing himself deeply into serious music study.In 1755 he was engaged by Karl Joseph von Furnberg as conductor of his orchestra, for which he wrote various nocturnes and divertimentos. It was during this period that he also created his first string quartets. While employed at the palace of Count Morzin, between 1758 and 1760, he wrote his first symphonies. In 1760 he married Maria Anna Keller, a marriage that proved unhappy from the beginning and soon gave way to a permanent separation. In 1761, Haydn became second Kapellmeister for Prince capital of Minnesota Anton Esterhazy at his estate in Eisenstadt.When the Esterhazys built a new palace at Esterhaz, Haydn assumed the status of full Kapellmeister (1766) and held this post for almost a quarter of a century. For the many concert and opera performances at Esterhaz, Haydn produced a vast repertory of compositions in virtually every field and form, arriving at full adulthood as creative artist. He rarely left Esterhaz, except for occasional visits to Vienna where he met Mozart and became one of his most devoted friends and admirers.In 1790, Haydn withdrew from his Esterhaz post and went to live in Vienna. In 1791 and 1794, Johann Peter Salomon, impresario and violinist, invited him to London to lead orchestral concerts. For these performances Haydn wrote twelve celebrated symphonies now identified as the London or Salomon Symphonies. keister in Vienna after the second visit, Haydn wrote in 1797 a patriotic hymn which became the Austrian national anthem. Between 1798 and 1801 he completed two chorale masterworks, The Creation and The Seasons, his first attempts at writing oratorios.He died in Vienna on May 31, 1809, and was buried in the Hundsthurm churchyard in 1820 his remains were reinterred in the upper parish church of Eisenstadt. (Jay Parini, Brett C. Millier, 1993) HAYDNS CONNECTION WITH THE ESTERHAZY FAMILY Following the disbanding of Count Morzins musical establishment Haydn secured a po st in 1761 with the Esterhazy family, thus forming a relationship which was to continue until the end of his life.First as assistant, and then as first chapelmaster, Haydn was given every incentive necessary to the realization of his genius. Prince Esterhazy was a capable amateur, and in such snug surroundings Haydn gradually developed a remarkable orchestra and a group of singers adequate for the performance of dramatic and religious music. (Ralph De Toledano, 1987) The Esterhazy family, at Eisenstadt and later at Esterhazy, kept up(p) one of the most splendid courts in Europe. symphony fitted out(p) there, as it did all over Germany, a large part of the entertainment.Almost daily concerts of put up and orchestral music, interspersed with marionette operas and true operas, to say nothing of the regular use of music at religious services, kept the time of the princes musicians completely filled. Life for men like Haydn was a constant round of concerts, performances and rehearsa ls, for which most of the music must be composed in otherwise unoccupied moments. The routine was broken by the occasional carriage of troupes of traveling musicians and by the removal of the prince, sometimes accompanied by the whole musical corps, to the capital for the winter season.Fortunately for Haydn, the trips to Vienna furnished opportunity both for the dissemination of his own works and for him constantly to renew his acquaintance with the musical life of the city which had become the musical center of the whole of Europe. (James E. Perone, 1995) THE MUSIC OF THE ESTERHAZY PERIOD A list of the music composed by Haydn during the twenty-nine years of his active connection with the Esterhazy family would be far too long to be included here.His compositions ranged over every musical form characteristic of the time symphonies, operas, Masses, string quartets, piano sonatas, concertos for various instruments with orchestra, and music for numerous other combinations of instrume nts and voices. The step-up of a famous harpist to the musical forces brought forth a series of compositions for harp having a famous cellist as a member of the orchestra necessitated concertos for violoncello and orchestra, which Haydn straightway produced a ball attended by the emperor brought out the whole orchestra with proudly performed new ballroom music.Haydn stood ready to compose, genially and to the best of his riotous ability, music for any occasion. At the death of Prince Esterhazy in 1790, the musical establishment was disbanded, but Haydn retained his title of Kappelmeister, and although he was now free to devote himself to other affairs, he retained an income from his patrons. The story of the rest of his life recounts constantly increasing fame and honor. His works were performed throughout Europe Naples, Berlin, Madrid, and London were all anxious to hear his current composition.Pupils flocked to him, and contemporary composers were almost unanimous in acknowled ging his greatness. (David Ewen, 2007 ) LONDON SYMPHONIES AND ORATORIOS Haydns later life was rich in incident, but that aspect must be left to the biographer. The two journeys to London, in 1790-1792 and 1794-1795, during which he composed the twelve great London symphonies, and conceived the desire to compose oratorios, are most important from the historical standpoint.On his first fork over to Vienna he devoted himself largely to the two oratorios, the Creation, first performed in 1798, and the Seasons, first performed in 1801. In 1803 he made his last public appearance as a conductor, and from then until his death in 1809, in a Vienna conquered by the armies of Napoleon, his life was that of an honored old man gradually succumbing to his infirmities. (Robert L. Marshall, 2003) pass CitedDavid Ewen. Composers of Yesterday Kessinger Publishing, 2007 James E. Perone. Musical Anthologies for Analytical Study A Bibliography Greenwood Press, 1995 Jay Parini, Brett C. Millier. The Col umbia History of American Poetry Columbia University Press, 1993 Ralph De Toledano. Haydn, Beethoven Old Instruments National Review, Vol. 39, April 10, 1987 Robert L. Marshall. Eighteenth-Century Keyboard Music Routledge, 2003 Sieghard Brandenburg. Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven Studies in the Music of the Classical Period Clarendon Press, 1998

Influence of Physical Punishment on Adolescents Self-esteem

Influence of Physical Punishment on Adolescents self-conceitIntroductionDisciplinary incidents be central to moral evolution beca make use of disciplinal practices assist to impress moral standards and values that provide the basis for self-controlled behaviour inside the child (Brody Shaffer, 1982, p.32). Amongst the various disciplinary methods, sensual penalty is widely practised crosswise disparate cultures and countries. The present oeuvre focuse on non-abusive bodily penalization and adopted the definition by Straus (1994) that personal penalty is the use of bodily force with the function of causing a child to finger pain, but not injury, for the purpose of correction or control of the childs behaviour (p.4). This definition was used to delineate non-abusive carnal penalization from harsher forms of abusive punishment. The term incarnate punishment is synonymous and has been used interchangeably with visible punishment. We used the term physical punishment in this find out because it specifically indicates that punishment is meted bulge in a physical and bodily manner.A survey conducted in Jamaica revealed that physical punishment is frequently practiced in home and school (Smith Mosby, 2003). Physical punishment is withal prevalent in south-west Ethiopia (Admassu, Belachew, Haileamalak, 2006). This disciplinary method, however, is not peculiar to developing countries. Even in socially privileged countries, physical punishment is also used as a disciplinary method. Approximately 60% of Hong Kong Chinese parents admitted to using physical punishment as a form of turn back (Tang, 2006). In America, 94% of 3- and 4- course of study olds sire been physically punished by their parents at least once during the past year (Straus Stewart, 1999), and 85% of Americans believed that a good hard spanking is some epochs necessary (Bauman Friedman, 1998). Beliefs in its positive disciplinary set up contributed to the widespread use of ph ysical punishment (Straus, 1994) and thither are evidence-based studies supporting the idea that physical punishment suppresses undesired behaviour (Gershoff, 2002 Larzelere, 2000 Paolucci Violato, 2004). For example, studies in Larzeleres (2000) meta-analysis provided evidence that non-abusive spanking used by loving parents reduced incidental noncompliance and fighting in 2- to 6-year olds. In relation to Larzeleres (2000) findings, Gershoff (2002) found a large mean effect size for neighboring(a) compliance following corporal punishment. However, as noted by Gershoff (2002), these beneficial outcomes are only temporarily because physical punishment neither teaches children the reasons for behaving correctly, nor does it communicate what effects their behaviours cave in on others. Hence, physical punishment whitethorn not facilitate moral internalisation of the intended disciplinary message (Gershoff, 2002). Moreover, the demerits whitethorn outweigh the merits of punishment because studies suggested that physical punishment black market with it unintended and unbecoming effects (Holden, 2002 Rohner, Kean, Cournoyer, 1991 Straus, 1994). In response to the increasingly condemnatory international sides about physical punishment, 25 states, to date, abolished all forms of physical punishment on children (Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children, 2009).Burgeoning query has colligate physical punishment to a variety of negative effects. These effects ranged from social-emotional and mental problems, such(prenominal) as cordial distress and withdrawal (Eamon, 2001), to behavioural problems, such as antisocial behaviour and increased aggression (Deater-Deckard, Dodge, Blates, Pettit, 1996 Sim Ong, 2005 Straus, Sugarman, Giles-Sims, 1997 Tang, 2006). Straus et al. (1997) suggested that a dose response to physical punishment for children may exist, such that a lot frequent and longer usage of punishment go out lead to increased prob might of behaviour problems. These potentially adverse effects of physical punishment may also carry over into adulthood in the form of increased psychopathology and violent behaviour (Eron, 1996) mental object abuse, depression, family violence, and suicide (Afifi, Brownridge, Cox, Sareen, 2006 Straus, 1995 Straus Kantor, 1994). Eron (1996) indicated that the more than harshly 8- and 9-year olds were punished, the more aggressive and antisocial they were in late adolescence and young adulthood. Afifi and colleagues (2006) also found individuals who were physically punished, as compared to those who were not, had higher(prenominal) hazard for major depression, alcohol abuse or dependence and externalising problems in adulthood, and these effects were not attenuated afterward controlling for sociodemographic variables and parental bonding. In addition, Straus (1995) found prodigious positive correlation betwixt the take aim of punishment experienced as a child and leve l of depressive symptoms and thoughts of committing suicide in adulthood, after controlling for socioeconomic status (SES), martial violence, and witnessing violence as a child.In the past decade, at least three meta-analyses were conducted to review research on the effects of physical punishment. Larzelere (2000) reviewed a total of 38 studies and found both(prenominal) beneficial (as discussed above) and negative effects of physical punishment. From 17 causally relevant studies, the author highlighted apparent poisonous effects of physical punishment. He first pointed out that physical punishment predicted increased subsequent negative externalising behaviour, supporting the violence begets violence outdoor stage. One of the studies reviewed was the controlled longitudinal studies of the National Longitudinal Study of Youth (Larzelere Smith, as cited in Larzelere, 2000), which provided not only consistent but also causally relevant evidence that physical punishment is associat ed to subsequent increase in antisocial behaviour. Secondly, Larzelere (2000) indicated that physical punishment predicted increased mental health problems. The links between physical punishment and both increased negative externalising behaviour and mental health problems were just supported by other meta-analysis, which evaluated 88 published works spanning a 62 year period. Gershoff (2002) found that physical punishment was indeed significantly associated to increased aggression, increased delinquency, increased antisocial behaviour, and decreased mental health, to name a few.All 20 studies involving mental health in Gershoffs (2000) meta-analysis found frequence of corporal punishment to be positively and significantly related to a decrease in childrens mental health. Straus and Kantor (1994) reported that after controlling for low SES, those who experienced corporal punishment in adolescence were still at higher risk for depression, suicidal thoughts and alcohol abuse. Altho ugh Paolucci and Violato (2004), who conducted another(prenominal) meta-analyses and evaluated 70 studies between 1961 and 2000, did not find exposure to corporal punishment led to increased risk of developing cognitive problems (e.g., suicidal thoughts and spatial relations toward violence), they found that bulk who experienced corporal punishment were at a small but increased risk for developing behavioural (e.g., aggression and antisocial behaviours) and affective problems (e.g., psychological impairment and low vanity).Physical punishment appears to have a dampening effect on self-esteem in its victims. However, studies have been inconclusive and evidence-based literature in this area is much thinner, as compared to the large number of published articles on physical punishment and increased externalising behaviours, such as childrens aggression, which is iodine of the most examine in the literature on parenting (Paolucci Violato, 2004). Only 3 studies (Adams, 1995 Larzeler e, Kein, Schumm, Alibrano, 1989 Sears, 1970) cited in Larzeleres (2000) meta-analysis, investigated the association between physical punishment and self-esteem. Specifically, Larzelere et al. (1989) found the amount of spanking received negatively predicted self-esteem but the negative correlations between punishment, self-esteem, and perception of fairness of punishment were reduced to non-significance after controlling for parental positive communication. The other study include in the meta-analysis did not find a significant correlation between physical punishment and subsequent self-esteem (Sears, 1970). Jouberts (1991) study, which was not included in the meta-analysis, also found no evidence indicating spanking to have any effect on childrens self-esteem scores, regardless whether spanking was administered by mothers or fathers, or both.On the other hand, one of the three studies as cited in Larzeleres (2000) meta-analysis found lower self-esteem among 6- to 12-year olds, esp ecially those who were hit with high oftenness (twice a week), even after controlling for ethnicity, cognitive enrichment and poverty (Adams, 1995). Furthermore, recent studies, which were not included in the meta-analysis, also found similar results. Using information from 1,397 children, Eamon (2001) found 4- to 9-year-old children who received more frequent spanking exhibited more socio-emotional problems like low self-esteem. In another study, Amato and Fowler (2002) investigated the relationship between parental use of corporal punishment and childrens self-esteem, using data collected from 3,400 households with a child within the age range of 5-18. Similarly, parents use of corporal punishment was found to predict lower self-esteem.Bauman and Friedman (1998) argued that physical punishment retards the development of self-esteem, and Paolucci and Violato (2004) used findings of corporal punishment being associated with psychosocial problems, such as depression, as supporting evidence that physical punishment is related to impaired self-esteem. Coercive disciplinary techniques are also linked to decreases in childrens level of confidence and assertiveness, and increases in feelings of humiliation and helplessness (Gershoff, 2002). One explanation for these findings is the fear of punishment makes people begin to escape. However, when escaping from punishment is not possible, feelings of learned helplessness and depression may develop (Paolucci Violato, 2004).Self-esteem, as defined by Rosenberg (1965), is a positive or negative attitude towards the self. Interestingly, self-esteem stability in childhood and adolescence does not differ between genders (Trzesniewski, Donnellan, Robins, 2003). Research has shown that self-esteem has a pervasive impact on an individuals life in numerous areas. Emotionally, individuals with low self-esteem have a tendency to exhibit higher levels of anxiety, experience more frequent psychosomatic symptoms, feelings of dep ression, lack of personal sufferance and submissiveness (Battle, 1992). Low self-esteem is also an important predictor for disruptive and maladaptive behaviours (Aunola, Stattin, Nurmi, 2000 Vandergriff Rust, 1989). An individuals social functioning can also be affected by his level of self-esteem. Children with high self-esteem are more popular among peers and participate more actively in social groups, unlike those with low self-esteem, who experience more difficulties forming friendships (Battle, 1992 Growe, 1980). Self-esteem has also been supported by research evidence, to be positively related to academic self-efficacy. This significant relationship is found in Western countries (Jonson-Reid, Davis, Saunders, Williams, Williams, 2005 Smith, Walker, Fields, Brookins, Seary, 1999), as easily as in Singapore (Ang, Neubronner, Oh, Leong, 2006).An important trend in the international research focuses on the effects of physical punishment on children (Ripoll- Nez Rohner, 200 6). Considering that self-esteem has a wide range of influence on an individuals life and the current literature re chief(prenominal)s inconclusive on the effects physical punishment have on self-esteem, we chose to investigate the relationship between non-abusive physical punishment administered by adolescents main disciplinarian and adolescents level of self-esteem. Self-esteem plays a vital type in an individuals development, and if physical punishment has negative effects on adolescents self-esteem, it is likely that his level of self-esteem exit affect his psychosocial and educational development, and his overall well-being. For instance, his academic success and ability to socialise contribute to his current and future well-being.The relationship between physical punishment and adolescents outcome cannot be simply described as two clean-cut categories, such that physically punished adolescents leave experience negative outcomes, and adolescents who have never been physical ly punished get out not. Instead, this relationship may lie on a continuum and the frequency of physical punishment may play an important role in the punishment-outcome link, such that increase in frequency of punishment will lead to increased probability of negative outcomes. Since a dose response towards physical punishment was suggested by Straus et al. (1997), and a positive relationship between the frequency of physical punishment and negative outcomes was concurred by Larzelere (2000) and Gershoff (2002), and more specifically, Adams (1995) and Eamon (2001) found lower self-esteem, especially among those who experienced frequent use of physical punishment, we chose to investigate the punishment-self-esteem link by focusing on the frequency of punishment. With increased frequency of physical punishment, lower self-esteem can be expected.The weight of the existing research seems to favour the viewpoint that non-abusive physical punishment carries with it negative baggage. Howev er, unlike physical abuse, the conclusion that non-abusive physical punishment indeed has detrimental consequences on adolescents well-being cannot be substantiated. Researchers at the opposer end of the debate cite conflicting evidence and physical punishment remains the most controversial topic in the domain of parental discipline (Holden, 2002 Larzelere, 1996).The main debate remains on whether non-abusive physical punishment is completely harmful or it has negative effects only when used within definite conditions. As summarised by Ripoll- Nez and Rohner (2006), the conditional defenders of corporal punishment argued that the effects of punishment may be positive, negative, or both depending on the conditions in which it was administered. As proposed in Gershoffs process-context model (2002), the link between physical punishment and its impact on the child is not direct and isolated. Instead, contextual factors of varying levels of influence may moderate the processes linking punishment and child constructs (Gershoff, 2002). This is supported by the fact that majority of the 94% of 3- and 4-year-old Americans who experienced physical punishment did not experience negative outcomes, such as developing into clinically aggressive adults or criminals. Critics of past research argued that many studies which linked physical punishment to negative effects have methodological flaws because they did not take into account the influence of moderating variables, which when included, tended to attenuate the relationship between punishment and negative outcomes (Rohner, Bourque, Elordi, 1996). Since not all individuals who experienced non-abusive physical punishment experienced negative outcomes, the present study further examined two potential moderators of the punishment-self-esteem link namely, adolescents perceptions on the fairness of physical punishment and health care provider bridal-rejection.Typically, research in this area has relied on parental reports o f physical punishment. However, parents may underreport the use of physical punishment due to social desirability. Parents may feel threaten to disclose the frequency with which they physically punish their children because it is not advocated in contemporary society, hence providing inaccurate data (Shum-Cheung, Hawkins, Lim, 2006). Moreover, if parent is the source of data on both the punishment and childrens behaviours, they may attempt to justify their punishment through the parental report of child behaviour (Bauman Friedman, 1998). Following, we collected retrospective account of physical punishment from the recipients of the disciplinary practice, and further explored the possible moderating effect their cognitive perceptions on the punishment, may exert on the punishment-self-esteem link.The impact of punishment on adolescents is not unidirectional because adolescents are not simply passive recipients of the punishment. Instead how adolescents perceive the punishment may a ffect the impact it has on their outcomes. As noted by Holden (2002), noticeably absent from research is studies of childrens perceptions and reactions to punishment. It has been suggested that effects of physical punishment may be moderated by the meaning children ascribes to the punishment (Benject Kazdin, 2003). Ignorance of this may lead to an inaccurate picture on the effects of punishment because the discern to understanding how physical punishment affects its victims lies in understanding how they react to the punishment physiologically, affectively, and cognitively (Gershoff, 2002). Holden (2002) further posited that this reaction involves at least two processes, namely, immediate physiological and sensory reaction, followed by the secondary cognitive appraisal stage. In line with Ripoll- Nez and Rohners (2006) suggestions on variables that are important in the research of physical punishment and its effects on children, we explored the potential moderating effect of adole scents perceptions of fairness of physical punishment, which has been considered to ameliorate the negative outcomes of punishment (Rohner et al., 1991 Rohner et al., 1996). Grusec and Goodnow (1994) suggested that children, who perceive punishment as fair, will be more willing to accept the intended disciplinary message, which then facilitates internalisation. Since adolescents are the recipients of parental disciplinary practices, the knowledge of their perceptions on the fairness of punishment will open the window to their internal mental processes, which is how they interpret and internalise the punishment. This provides a more complete understanding of the relationship between punishment and self-esteem. Concerns regarding whether adolescents are acquire enough to make sensible judgments about the fairness of discipline can be allayed because Konstantareas and Desbois (2001) found 4-year-old preschoolers capable of making judgments about the fairness of discipline by mothers, and in a study conducted in Singapore, parents and 10- to 12-year-old childrens responses on fairness of discipline were similar (Shum-Cheung et al., 2006). Therefore, if adolescents perceive physical punishment as fair, the effects of punishment on their self-esteem may not be deleterious. Following, the negative association between physical punishment and self-esteem can be expected to be stronger at lower levels, as compared with higher levels of perceived fairness.Little is also known about the conditions under which punishment occurs (Bauman Friedman, 1998) and if information regarding the context in which the punishment is meted out is not captured, only a snapshot of the impact of punishment on adolescents will be known. Opponents of physical punishment have acknowledged that physical punishment by itself is unlikely to produce negative child outcomes. However, when fluxd with other risk factors in the family, negative effects of physical punishment may get up (Bauman Fri edman, 1998). Therefore, certain factors in the adolescents family may influence the cognitive appraisal process of the punishment and, thus, buffer the negative effects.Corporal punishment is considered to be beneficial when administered by emotionally supportive parents who share positive interactions with their children (Paolucci Violato, 2004). As discussed above, Larzelere et al. (1989) reported that positive parental communication moderated the punishment-self-esteem link. Therefore, information regarding other aspects of parenting, such as the warmth dimension, will provide a much fuller understanding towards the relationship between physical punishment and self-esteem.As construed in the parental acceptance-rejection theory (PARTheory), parental acceptance and rejection form the warmth dimension of parenting (Rohner, 1991). Perceived parental acceptance-rejection may be one of the most important parenting dimensions to consider because no ethnic or ethnic group was found where perceived parental acceptance-rejection failed to correlate with the predicted personality dispositions (Rohner Britner, 2002). PARTheory predicted rejected children, as compared to children who perceived themselves as being accepted, are more likely to have an impaired sense of self-esteem, amidst other negative effects (Rohner, 1991 Rohner Britner, 2002). Rohner (1991) used Meads (1934) significant other concept to explain how parental rejection may affect self-esteem. PARTheory assumed that everyone tends to view ourselves as we imagine significant others view us. Therefore, if parents who are childrens most significant other reject them, they are more likely to define themselves as unworthy, and consequently develop an overall sense of negative self-evaluation, including feelings of negative self-esteem and self-adequacy (Rohner, 1991). Although the term parent is used in PARTheory, Rohner (1991) explained it refers to the major health care provider of the child, not ne cessarily the parents. Therefore, we used the term caregiver instead of parent in this study.Variations in perceived caregiver acceptance-rejection among adolescents may magnify or minimise the effects of physical punishment and this has been supported by cross-cultural evidence. Rohner et al. (1991), for example, found severe physical punishment to be related to psychological maladjustment among Kittitian youths and the effects became more substantial when it was paired with caregiver rejection. Similarly, results from another study conducted in Georgia showed that the association between perceived harshness of punishment and psychological maladjustment disappeared once perceptions of caregiver acceptance-rejection were accounted for (Rohner et al., 1996). In the context of Singapore, perceived parental acceptance-rejection was also found to play an important moderating role. Sim and Ong (2005) found perceived fathers rejection moderated the link between slapping and daughters leve l of aggression, and perceived mothers rejection moderated the canning-aggression link among Singapore Chinese preschoolers of both genders. All these studies uniformly showed that childrens perception of caregiver acceptance-rejection has a significant impact on the association between physical punishment and its outcomes. Thus, at higher compared to lower levels of perceived caregiver rejection, a stronger negative association between physical punishment and self-esteem can be expected.We collected data on adolescents perceptions of caregiver acceptance and rejection, and frequency of physical punishment by their main disciplinarian, rather than their main caregiver. This is because our study used a Singapore Chinese sample, and it is common within this group that the main disciplinarian may not be the main caregiver. In Chinese societies, traditional roles of disciplinarian and caregiver are on an individual basis played by fathers and mothers, and this role differentiation stil l applies in Singapore (Quah, 1999). In cases where the disciplinarian and caregiver are different persons, the adolescent may experience more punishment from the disciplinarian as compared to the caregiver, and the impact of punishment from the main disciplinarian will not be reflected if punishment administered by the caregiver was measured.Since the main disciplinarian is the adult who administers punishment, effects of punishment may be moderated by the adolescents perceived acceptance from his main caregiver, who plays the key caring role and spends the most time with him. Collecting data on adolescents perceptions of caregiver acceptance-rejection allowed us to examine the punishment-self-esteem link through the relationship between caregiver and adolescent.As pointed out by Larzelere (2000), one of the needs in the research on physical punishment is for studies to take a developmental perspective because reviews by Larzelere (2000) and Gershoff (2002) found outcomes of punish ment varied by the childs age. For example, Gershoff (2002) found that with increased age, the association between corporal punishment and aggressive and antisocial behaviours became stronger. Following, we used a retrospective design to investigate the association between physical punishment and self-esteem, and the impact the two proposed moderators may have on this link, at two age frames, namely when the individual was 11- to 12-years old (early adolescence) and 15- to 16-years old (middle adolescence). Although physical punishment is at its zenith when children are aged 3-5 (Straus Stewart, 1999), and its frequency decreases as children grow older, physical punishment is still prevalent during adolescence (Straus et al., 1997). Straus (1994) found more than 60% of parents in America reported hitting 10- to 12-year olds, and even at ages 15-17, one out of four adolescents is still physically punished.The two age frames were chosen partly because this study was retrospective in nature, and memories of punishment incidents during early childhood may be weak due to the long time passage that passed. Additionally, an average Singapore savant aged 11- to 12-years old and 15- to 16-years old, is in preparation for the national examinations, namely, the Primary School Leaving Examination and GCE O Levels, respectively. Being the periods of their major examinations, memories during these periods may be much clearer and distinct, and this will provide the study with more accurate data.Children below age 8 have not developed the concept of global self-esteem, thus another reason for focusing at these two age frames is that at ages 11-12 and 15-16, adolescents will have developed the ability to view themselves in terms of static dispositions, which permits them to combine their separate self-evaluations into an overall sense of self-esteem (Berk, 2006, p.449). Moreover, unlike in early childhood, individual differences in self-esteem from early to middle adolescen ce become increasingly stable (Trzesniweski et al., 2003), which allowed us to explore the punishment-self-esteem link more precisely.According to Eriksons stages of psychosocial development (as cited in Berk, 2006), he organised life into eight stages that extend from birth to death, of which two stages were related to the present study. During the latency stage, where 11- and 12-year olds will be categorized, they enter school and are required to develop a sense of competence through the social interactions in school. With a wider range of socialisation opportunities, their relationships with parents may no longer be the most significant but it remains influential because little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers may lead them to doubt their ability to succeed (Berk, 2006). However, 15- and 16-year olds are in the adolescence stage, where the need to develop an independent identity that is separated from the family, becomes the key developmental task, and relatio nships with peer groups become the most significant relationship. Hence the attenuation of familial influence for adolescents aged 15-16 may decrease as compared to when they were 11- to 12-years old.Moreover, 15- and 16-year olds fall in Piagets formal operational stage, which represents the apex of cognitive development (Siegler Richards, 1982). Unlike the subsequent stage, 11- and 12-year olds are in the concrete operational stage and can only make on reality. But formal operational adolescents developed the ability for abstract thinking and can engage in hypothetico-deductive reasoning and propositional thought, to conjure more general logical rules through internal reflection (Berk, 2006). Additionally, they can apply their abstract reason abilities to all areas of life (Siegler Richards, 1982). Following, it may be the case that adolescents perceptions of caregiver acceptance-rejection play a greater role, than perceived fairness of punishment, in moderating the link betwee n punishment and self-esteem, when they are aged 11 to 12. Because their social go though expanded, still centres around their parents and how accepted or rejected they perceived their caregiver to be may still play a significant role unlike during middle adolescence. At ages 15-16, adolescents perceived fairness of punishment may matter more than perceived caregiver acceptance because their relationship with their caregiver is not the most critical factor in their psychosocial development. Additionally, their growing need for independence from their parents as well as their capacities to think through their own best interests with their greater cognitive awareness, may influence them to place more emphasis on their personal thoughts, and on their friends views but less on what their caregiver thinks of them.Within the region of punishment research, it is also important to acknowledge the existing attitudes towards physical punishment within the particular culture. As pointed out by proponents of physical punishment, aside from the family, the cultural context also buffers potential negative consequences of physical punishment (Bauman Friedman, 1998). Acceptance of physical punishment varies across cultures and it may contribute to variations in child outcomes across different groups because cultural values and beliefs affect whether punishment is used more instrumentally or emotionally, and how children emotionally respond to it (Gershoff, 2002 Larzelere, 2000). Larezeleres (2000) highlighted five studies which presented evidence of significantly differential effects of spanking by ethnicity. Deater-Deckard et al. (1996), for example, found maternal use of physical punishment predicted externalising behaviours only for European American, but not African American children. The authors suggested that this may be due to the stronger acceptance and preference for physical punishment among African American, in contrast to European American parents, hence affect ing the manner in which punishment is used and childrens perceptions of its appropriateness. Similarly, Gunnoe and Mariner (1997) found spanking to be negatively related to African American girls later aggressive behaviours, but positively related to European American boys later aggressive behaviours.Majority of the studies, which investigated the link between physical punishment and self-esteem, were conducted in Western countries, such as America. However, attitudes towards childrearing in Western countries are different from those of the Asian cultures in Singapore (Tong, Elliot, Tan, 1996). Unlike Western cultures, which display a lower tolerance of physical punishment, this form of discipline is popular within the Asian culture. Spare the rod and spoil the child is an old saying which reflects the prevalent parental attitude, especially among Singapore Chinese parents, who continue using wicker to discipline children and view physical punishment as an effective disciplinary m ethod (Elliot, Thomas, Chan, Chow, 2000). Being a multi-ethnic society, ethnic differences exist in childrearing techniques, which may lead to differences in usage of physical punishment across ethnic groups. A study conducted by Quah (1999) on the Singapore family found Chinese parents tended to use physical punishment more than other parents, while Malay and Indian parents were most likely to use reasoning, and authority was most frequently used by parents in the group Other. Considering that ethnicity may affect the outcome of physical punishment, this research recruited only Singapore Chinese participants.

The rationale rights based approaches

The rationale rights ground glide pathesThis essay will discuss rough the rationale, shortcomings and potentials of rights base approaches to maturement as a subject. The objective of this essay is to explore the above menti whizzd in detail as this is believed to help all those involved in festering extend and to add to the breathing debates in this atomic number 18a. The former(a) reason is to clarify this theorisation for actors in the field be it NGOs and government or international agencies dealing with ontogeny to really understand what rights found approaches entail.Rights found approaches to ripening has become so popular for the past decade, with instruction agencies and national governments understanding it and implementing it in a various of government agencys. As zit put itSome developing professionals remained committed to the approach, while others were frustrated at the lack of progress in realising its app arnt potential. Some academics and activists uttered continuing scepticism and argued that the rights base approach was angiotensin-converting enzyme much example of northern hegemony.(Hickey etal,20099)It is against this backdrop that discussing slightly the shortcomings and potentials of rights found approaches is appropriate. The discussion is hoped that it will help governments and NGOs to propose into account the shortcomings and potentials in their development work. The essay focuses on the rights ground approaches in generally, for there is ingest for self reflection so that actors push aside understand twain the negative and positive side of rights found approaches for it to be a helpful tool on the ground rather than theory. This maneuver was emphasised by Hickey saying.neither praise nor damn rights based approaches to development, and to instead work toward a more balanced understanding of both potentials and pitfalls of such approaches. We hope that this measure sound judgement will avoid the antagonis ms with other new approaches to development for example social capital, participation, in which reasonable disagreements have become running battles, entrenching increasingly polarised positions, clouding solicitude to facts on the ground and preventing the productive synergies that should develop between opposing views.(Hickey etal, 2009209).To address the electric receptacles highlighted in the above paragraphs the essay will deal with the rationale of rights based approaches followed by a discussion on the current debates which will help to highlight the shortcomings and potentials. A comparative summary with other approaches to development will be looked at and a discussion about the shortcomings and potentials which will be followed by a conclusion.Various definitions has been put forward to describe what a rights based approach is. As decl ard in the man Rights Reference Book, Human rights to development rout out be go underd as a conceptual and analytical approach to de velopment cooperation, which is based on the standards and principles of valet rights and which aims to incorporate these standards and principles in all planning and implementation of development cooperation (Sepulveda etal 200403)Others define a rights based approach in what it does to a situation. As stated in Ball, A Rights based approach helps to uncover the ancestor causes of under development, conflict and even natural disasters such as famine.(Ball 2005278).In relation back to this essay, the definition as propagated by Sepulveda in the Human Rights Handbook will be used or referred to. For the proper understanding to the readers, there is need to define as well what development is and which definition is applied in this contexts as rights based approach focuses on the way in which development is being approached. The premise to the Right to exploitation Declaration states that,Development is a comprehensive economic, social, heathen and semi semipolitical process, wh ich aims at the constant improvement of the well being of the entire race and all individuals on the fanny of their active, allow and meaningful participation in development and in the fair distribution of benefits resulting there from.1This definition will be the one referred to in this essay since it cover so many things and it is a consensus from all the nations which fall under the United Nations. Having stated the objective of the essay, given the definitions of development and rights based approach the essay will now discuss the rationale behind having rights based approach to development.In order to highlight the shortcomings and contributions the fundamental reasons for using a rights based approach to development will be discussed. It is my view that from the past development projects were not incorporating merciful rights in their agendas. Human development and human rights were seen as separate fields altogether. and it was realised that all the two frameworks are t here to promote and secure the peoples dignity and also freedoms. As stated by Nyamu-Musembi,A rights based approach adds an element of accountability and culpability, an ethical or moral dimension to development. It therefore, demands a shift from viewing poverty annihilation as development goal to viewing it as a matter of social justice, as the realisation of a right and fulfilment of a duty.(Nyamu-Musembi, 200542)However in relation to NGOs, adopting rights based approach is based on the fact that it is moral right, and widely accepted perception that it brings contributions to traditional approaches which will be discussed in the essay. It was also believed international-wide by authors and professionals that development should have a consideration for rights. It is the writers view that human rights and development are more effective together than either one on its own. And this reason of combining a rights based approach to development was confirmed by Theis as he stated tha tCombining human rights, development and activism create a more effective approach than any of them on their own. A rights based approach has a greater chance of achieving results in the disturb against injustice, inequality, poverty and exploitation. (Theis, 200413).The realisation by actors in development was to the effect that not all was being done to realise the rights of people and there was need for some comprehensive approach to tackle issues as poverty and address the inequalities involved and this can be done through legal means. Petit sayDevelopment practitioners have to begun to recognise the limits of their technical and micro-project approaches in tackling the root causes of poverty. They have recognised the need to address deeper structures of inequality and exclusion and to confront these at the legal and political as well as social, cultural and economic levels.(Petit, p92)Also according to Gready the realisation of links has led to the issue of rights in developm ent as he stated thatRecognition of the fundamental links between rights, denial, impoverishment, vulnerability and conflict has led to the incorporation of rights- based approaches into the funding strategies, policy formulations and practice of a several(a) range of actors.(Gready P etal.20051).The other reason for adopting a rights based approach to development was that it uses different lens for the analysis of problems which development seeks to address. The committee on Economic, complaisant and Cultural Rights have summarised or explained the above statement as followsThe real potential of human rights lies in its ability to change the way people see themselves vis-a-vis the government and other actors. Rights framework provides a mechanism for reanalysing and renaming problems like contaminated water or malnutrition as violations and, as such, something that need not and should not be tolerated..Rights make it clear that violations are neither inevi duck nor natural, but arise from deliberate decisions and policies. By demanding explanation and accountability, human rights expose the hidden range and structures behind violations and challenge the conditions that create poverty2Having looked at the rationale for using rights based approach it is important for this essay to discuss some of the debates which are existing in this field to clearly show the potentials and shortcomings of rights based approach. There has been a debate that human rights based approaches re-politicise development through NGOs work and it is still topical. This was about humanitarian principles applied by international agencies namely impartiality, independence and neutrality which are considered to be political values. Most writers have agreed that development can be re-politicised by human rights based approach especially in relation to to the identification of need. As Nyamu -Musembi and Cornwall expressed thatWhereas a needs based approach focuses on securing additional resources for delivery of services to marginalised groups, a rights based approach calls for existing resources to be shared more equally.assisting the marginalised people to assert their rights to those resources, thus reservation the process explicitly political(Nyamu-Musembi etal 20042).This debate is now looked at to see if it can highlight some shortcomings or potentials of using a right based approach. In this case I will try and analyse whether being political in the sense portrayed is bad for development. It is my personal view that it is needful part for rights based approach to be political as this can bring public awareness and include naming, shaming for the governments and development actors for the rights violations. It is my contention that using other methods was leaving behind the issue of power relations that exist in society and this causes them not to look at the root causes of the problems.Others argue that human rights based approaches are a new form of impe rialism used to provide an increasingly intrusive attack on sovereignty, democracy and political debate. Some argue that this issue of cultural imperialism stems from the origins or foundation of human rights which is mainly western in nature. But others also defended the position by arguing that the universal aspect of rights is requirement for it adds legitimacy and that human rights based approaches involves both sides of universality and cultural relativism. Looking at this debate I find it to portray a potential of rights based approach to development.Those who support human rights based approaches are happy and felt that putting development within the confines of the law is good for it creates a point of accountability, that is obligations and rights or duties mainly on states and all the actors involved in development programmes. As pointed by Gready thatThe value -added of rights based approach can be sought-after(a) through direct applications of the law, but more particul arly through indirect and strategic uses of the law.(Gready 200878)However there are some who are so atheistic about using the law where there are inequalities and existing power relations which are different.The existing debates are showing potentials and rationale of human rights based approaches as perceived in the development circles. To real engage in the debate as to whether rights based approach have any potential or has some shortcomings, a comparative analysis will be done with other traditional approaches which were used and in this case sustainable livelihoods and needs based approaches or charity. In relation to sustainable livelihoods it can be said that they can complement each other but it deals with the impact of entitlements whilst rights based deals more with what entitlements the marginalised people should have and focus more on the long run effect. This can highlight the potential do by rights based as compared to sustainable livelihoods approach.Another approa ch to be discussed is needs based, in which case it is mainly based on needs and even selective as to which needs are more important and will be addressed. Looking at a rights based approach it can be compared to a needs based and be found to be better for it addresses the root causes of the problem since rights are indivisible it deals with the situation as it is. A needs based approach no one has obligation and duty unlike in a rights based approach, it entails binding and moral obligations on the actors like government. The other fact about needs based approaches is that like sustainable livelihoods, it focuses on the short term just to address the needs but a right based looks at the long term. I strongly believe that rights based approaches to development has improved the situations and contributed a lot to development as a subject. In a rights based approach the subjects are empowered to claim for their own rights. A table inspired by Save the children will be drawn to show th is comparison, summarising the differences between rights based and needs based. It is not disputed that these are good contributions made by rights based approaches to development Inspired by Save the children and created by the authorThe comparative analysis has been done by various authors among them Jonsson from UNICEF stated when comparing needs based and rights based approaches to nutrition,..the essence of the differences is that in the former beneficiaries have no active claims to fancy that their needs will be met, and there is no binding obligation or duty for anybody to meet these needs. In contrast, a rights based approach recognises beneficiaries as active subjects or claim -holders and establishes duties or obligations for those against whom a claim can be held.(Jonsson 199949)From the above comparative analysis with other approaches or perspectives to development it can be safely concluded that human rights based approaches contributed significantly to development as a subject and has the potential of driving development works in a better direction for the betterment of the marginalised groups.After having dealt with a needs based approach to show the contributions made by rights based approach another(prenominal) comparative analysis is done with a charity based approach. This approach has been criticised because it give the impression that a problem has been solved, but it does not deal with the root causes as well and it does not give the beneficiaries the opportunity to make decisions. Rights based approach is rapidly trying and replacing this charity based to overcome the shortcomings. The table below also shows the different between charity and rights based approach to developmentInspired by (Lisndstorm -Sarelim and Mustaniemi-Laakso.2007) and created by the authorFrom the above table 2 it can be said the rights based approaches have contributed significantly to development as a subject.Despite the theoretical strength of this approach, i t is also not free from shortcomings. The following section will explore the shortcomings of the approach without a specific context and juxtapose it with the potentials which will be grouped into four categories namely political, conceptual, organisational and strategic challenges and ideological as well as implementation. All this is done to address the issues as to whether rights based approaches have really contributed or is it is just a failure.conceptualIt can be said that rights based approaches sometimes suffer a number of conceptual difficulties, especially in the economic social and cultural spheres. As can be supported by John Farrington,The difficulty of systematically incorporating a time frame in the consideration of right, so that for instance they do not illuminate environmental issues such as the appropriate rate of depletion of non-renewable resources. The difficulty of conceptualising an appropriate balance between rights and responsibilities and also the difficul ty of defining when cultural specifications override wider good should require suspension of normal rights. The difficulties in resolving tensions among different levels at which rights are conceived, (Farrington,20013)There is a progressive potential though, rights based approach did position development as being for everyone and not really focusing on the so called poorest people in society. It also gives some political issues into development in the issues be it problems and solutions.Organisational and strategic challengesRights based approach can be said that it gives an organisation a hard time in that rights are indivisible, so they cannot prioritise since all rights are equally important and this is really difficult when the organisation has only limited resources to address the issues at stake. Another issues that in the process the staff is engaged in the politics at a greater stage than with other approaches. This can be against foreign policy and the organisations may c ompromise the humanitarian principle of neutrality and this can be dangerous to the staff.On the other hand it can be said the approach is a potential in that this is a holistic approach and can help the development agencies to deal with the root causes of the problem which in some situations would be authorities. It gives a clear planning to organisations.PoliticalA rights based approach can be said to have a shortcoming in that it put on the state, as a duty bearer all the burden. And another contentious issue is of taking matters to the courts, in these instances it will be on individual basis and this undermines or destroys the collective struggles. Rights based approach in some instances might be too confrontational a method or a dodge and this takes away or removes the other approaches of negotiation.Again it can be regarded a potential as it gives and impose obligations also creates duty bearers. It makes the beneficiaries or rights holders to participate in programmes and pl ay a role in the decisions that affect their lives. Its again strengthens the principle of equality and citizenship.IdeologicalRights based approach can be said to be supporting the neoliberal agenda or ideas by emphasising on individualism. And the approach does not sometimes take into account different contexts and some ideas may not be good for a certain group of environment, they just applied equal everywhere. On the other hand it can be said rights based approach put development so as to address inequalities and fight discrimination of marginalised groups and address power relations through development on how to assign resources.Rights based approach needs adequate resources to be implement and this sometimes offer a major problem for there can be financial constraintsAfter exploration of the potentials, shortcomings and the rationale for rights based approaches in a bid to address the issues as a way of self criticism within the approach, it is terrible to provide some sug gestion so as to take forward the goal and securing more progressive forms of development. Though it has been discussed that rights based approaches re-politicise development, it can be said that it is necessary for development actors to tackle the underlying causes of poverty and marginalised. Also when rights based approaches is focused, there is need to be defined and conceptualised well since there is room for several(a) interpretation. I t is also suggested that there is need for self reflection of the rights based to understand the potentials and shortcomings as this will help to move this tool of human rights based approach from being theory into practice, or from theoretical arguments to evidence based arguments. deductionRights based approach is here to stay and be implemented in development projects, however as highlighted in the essay it has made tremendous contributions to development as a subject by bringing into circuit board the issues of accountability, duty bearer s, participation of the citizens and dealing with the root causes of the problem. It again tries to address the inequalities from the power relations that exits in society. Like any other approach it also suffers shortcomings from the way it can be implemented, different contexts, political and ideological differences that exist as some portray it as a form of cultural imperialism and some correct of western hegemony. This writer was aware of the existing talks with regard to the approach and have decided to do a rundown of the approach looking into the contributions that has been made and also the shortcomings as a way of helping the various actors involved in development to know more about the approach so as to appreciate it as it is and working towards improving on the shortcomings highlighted. It was also intended to add to the existing debates as to whether rights based approaches have failed or not.ReferencesBall O.2005 Conclusion, in P Gready Reinventing development? Transla ting rights-based approaches from theory into practice (PP278-300)Farrington J.2001, Sustainable Livelihoods, Rights and the New Architecture of Aid, Number 69, June 2001, The Overseas Development make for. LondonGready, P 2008 Rights based approaches to development What is the value added? Development in practice- oxford p74Hickey S. and D Milton (eds) 2009 Rights Based neares to Development, Exploring the Potential and Pitfalls. Kumarian PressJonsson U.1999 Historical Summary on the SCN Working Group on Nutrition, Ethics, and Human Rights.SCN News 18 July, special issue on Adequate Food A Human Right49-51Lundstrom-Sarelin, A and M Mustaniemi-Laasko 2007 Human Rights Based Approach to Development what is it all about? HRBA in development cooperation change from needs based to rights based 27. 09.2007Nyamu -Musembi C and A Cornwall2004 What is the rights based approach all about Perspectives from International development agencies, Sussex, England. Institute of Development Studies .Nyamu -Musembi.C2005 An Actor-oriented Approach to Rights in Development, IDS Bulletin, Volume 36 Number 1, January 2005 pp42.Petit Jand J Wheeler, Developing Rights? Relating Discourse to Context and Practice. Institute of development StudiesSepulveda M,T Van Banning D.Gudmundsclotter,C. Chamoun and WJM.Van Genungten(eds) 2004 Human Rights Reference Handbook, University of Peace.Theis J 2004 Promoting Rights Based Approaches, Experiences and Ideas from Asia and the Pacific. Save the children Sweden. Keen Publishing.Declaration on the Right to development, adopted by the normal Assembly of the United Nations in resolution 41/128 of 4 December 1986.CESCR (Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights) 1999 International Technical Assistance Measures (article 2).CESCR General stimulation Number 2.Geneva.CESCR.

The Corporate Social Responsibility of Motorola

The Corporate Social Responsibility of MotorolaCorporate Social Responsibility also referred to as CSR stick stunned be defined as the archetype that corporations produce an obligation to society to take into account not just their economic impact but also their loving and environmental impact.Motorola defines corporate social responsibility as a means of harnessing the power of our global duty to benefit people.It means doing the right thing in all aspects of our business, including how we treat the environment, our employees, our customers,our fragmentizeners and our communities. social function OF CORPORATE SOCAIL dutyIn recent years Corporate Social Responsibility is being linked to Business ethics. Ethics? There atomic number 18 rules that designate the difference between right and wrong. Ethics encourages the business to do what is right there by conforming the organization to respectable behaviour. CSR has brought c retire Code Of Ethics , a document that organisat ions write to set out standards of behaviour that is expected by a set of stakeholders. Some code of ethics include principles such(prenominal) as honesty, integrity, loyalty, fairness, trustworthiness, law abiding, leadership, accountability, values, morales and respect and concern for others. These incorporate characteristics and behaviour of principles that are expected by organizations.Many companies previously viewed Corporate Socail Responsibility in hurt of a form of administrative compliance with standards that are legal and in keeping with rules and regulation internal to the company. It must be noted that this have since changed and for businesses to live in todays global world companies must pay attention to earning trust, confidence and respect of their customers.In todays global world businesses are being demanded to practice ethical behaviour. It groundwork then be said that CSR is interested with ways an organisation exceeds the minimum obligations to stakeholders specified through regulations and corporate governance. It takes into consideration as to how demands of different stakeholders apprize be reconciled. CSR should improve corporate operations as it relates to human rights, environmental protection, sponsorship to local communities and diversity among others in the work place.HISTORY OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITYIt has been argued that social responsibility movement came about during the 1960s or 1970s, the public consciousness was increased about the role of business, helping to grow and maintain exceedingly ethical practices in society and particularly in the natural environment.GROWTH OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITYIn most recent years CSR have become very popular globally and the contributing factors include public awareness and technology. The public have now become aware through technical mechanisium such as the internet, sattalite viewing, mobile phones and the ability to communicate through the use of programmes such as skype and video conferencing.The ability to get information on a real time bases has allowed the public to be sensible of global issues. Issues such as graft and corruptness in other countries and how this have impacted on their citizens. The public is also able to get information about businesses around the world and in most cases the business that make headlines are the ones that is not want the welfare of the natural environment and human resources alike. Business that may have had incidences of harm to natural environment or to human resources have caused many NGOs to be born. The strikes and pickets and bad publicity the the business may receive would have serious long term consequences on the exsistance and survival of the business.BRIBERY AND CORUPTIONSue Hawley (2000) stated that some businesses pay massive amounts of money to gain contracts or concessions they would not have otherwise won. She estimated that about US$80billion a year is paid and that this amount is about the amount that is needed by the UN. The UN believes that this amount would be needed to eradicate world poverty. These bribes and the cost attached to it falls mainly on the poor,whether it is through the digression of aid money into corrupt officials pockets or through hiking up prices when the cost of bribes is passed on in raised prices to consumers.Bribery and corruption undermine the proper workings of a market economy which can seriously reduce GDP in the poorest countries. It reflects false price and cost considerations so that sources of wealth or resources are not used efficiently. Decisions are being made based on who pays the biggest bribes rather than quality, price, innovation and service. Causing prices to rise for everyone the impact is felt by the poor.It can be noted that resources are frequently diverted away from smaller projects that assist in development of a country but rather put in big projects that are said to be high profile, where there is much scope for improper payments and practices. This impacts on the poor who are denied basic indispensable public services.Being involved in corruption is ethically wrong, here power is misused or abused undermining the intergrity of all concerned. depravitys however undermines the democratic serve as well the rule of law. Government must earn its licience to operate just as any other business that operates. Government officials and politicians all lose their legitimacy in a climate of corruption.Againwith the poor being affected the most.Environmental issues are likely to suffer in an regime that corruption is predominant, environmental legislations usually is lacking as corrupt officials is paid for turning a blind eye.Business are also at risk when there is bribery and corruption in a country. There are legal implications and risk, this type of behaviour id illegal where ever it occurs but even if it were not, because of international pressure model the UN convention against cor ruption it is becoming increasingly illegal to engage in these type of practices in many countries. Accusations of corruption whether proven or not can cause reputations to be lost or tarnished and the risk of a falling business is very possible. Example Nike where accused of using children to work in effort shops to produce high end products that were very costly to cunsumers. Nike have since spent millions of dollars to rebuild its reputation as losses started to be realised.As a business that may be cheating, it may encourage other businesses to cheat to have a competitive advantage or simply to survive. This makes doing business much more difficult. There is added substantability to the cost of doing business. There can be loss of trust by all stakeholders involved employess, suppliers and customers.Transparency International every year produces the Corruption Perception Index. This Index ranks one hundred and seventy eight countries according to the level of corruption perceiv ed to exist among public officials and politicians. A score indicating set means that the country is highly corrupt and a score of ten indicates highly clean. The following diagram is the 2010 Corruption Perceptions Index.RANKCOUNTRY/TERRITORY seduceRANKCOUNTRY/TERRITORY check offRANKCOUNTRY/TERRITORYSCORE1Denmark9.330Spain6.159Tunisia4.31New Zealand9.332Portugal6.062Croatia4.11Singapore9.333Botswana5.862FYR Macedonia4.14Finland9.233Puerto Rico5.862Ghana4.14Sweden9.233Taiwan5.862Samoa4.16Canada8.936Bhutan5.766Rwanda4.07Netherlands8.837Malta5.667Italy3.98Australia8.738Brunel5.568Georgia3.88Switzerland8.739Korea ( sulfur)5.469Brazil3.710Norway8.639Mauritius5.469Cuba3.711Iceland8.541Costa Rica5.369Montenegro3.711Luxembourg8.541Oman5.369Romania3.713Hong Kong8.441Poland5.373Bulgaria3.614Ireland8.044Dominica5.273El Salvador3.615Austria7.945Cape Verde5.173Panama3.615Germany7.946Lithuania5.073Trinidad and Tobago3.617Barbados7.846Macau5.073Vanuatu3.617Japan7.848Bahrain4.978China3.519Qatar7. 749Seychelles4.878Colombia3.520United Kingdom7.650Hungary4.778Greece3.521Chile7.250Jordan4.778Lesotho3.522Belgium7.150Saudi Arabia4.778Peru3.522United States7.153Czech Republic4.678Serbia3.524Uruguay6.954Kuwait4.578Thailand3.525France6.854South Africa4.585Malawi3.426Estonia6.556Malaysia4.485Morocco3.427Slovenia6.456Namibia4.487Albania3.328Cyprus6.356Turkey4.487India3.328United Arab Emirates6.359Latvia4.387Jamaica3.330Israel6.159Slovakia4.387Liberia3.3RANKCOUNTRY/TERRITORYSCORERANKCOUNTRY/TERRITORYSCORERANKCOUNTRY/TERRITORYSCORE91Bosnia and Herzegovina3.2116Tanzania2.7146Nepal2.291Djibouti3.2116Vietnam2.7146Paraguay2.291Gambia3.2123Armenia2.6146Yemen2.291Guatemala3.2123Eritrea2.6154Cambodia2.191Kiribati3.2123Madagascar2.6154Central African Republic2.191Sri Lanka3.2123Niger2.6154Comoros2.191Swaziland3.2127Belarus2.5154Congo-Brazzaville2.198Burkina Faso3.1127Ecuador2.5154Guinea-Bissau2.198Egypt3.1127Lebanon2.5154Kenya2.198Mexico3.1127Nicaragua2.5154Laos2.1 one hundred oneDominican Repu blic3.0127Syria2.5154Papua New Guinea2.1101Sao Tome Principle3.0127Timor-Leste2.5154Russia2.1101Tonga3.0127Uganda2.5154Tajikistan2.1101Zambia3.0134Azerbaijan2.4164Democratic Republic of the Congo2.0105Algeria2.9134Bangladesh2.4164Guinea2.0105genus Argentina2.9134Honduras2.4164Kyrgyzstan2.0105Kazakhstan2.9134Nigeria2.4164Venezuela2.0105Moldova2.9134Philippines2.4168Angola1.9105Senegal2.9134Sierra Leone2.4168Equatorial Guinea1.9110Benin2.8134Togo2.4170Burundi1.8110Bolivia2.8134Ukraine2.4171Chad1.7110Gabon2.8134Zimbabwe2.4172Sudan1.6110Indonesia2.8143Maldives2.3172Turkmenistan1.6110Kosovo2.8143Mauritania2.3172Uzbekistan1.6110Solomon Islands2.8143Pakistan2.3clxxvIraq1.5116Ethiopia2.7146Cameroon2.2176Afghanistan1.4116Guyana2.7146Cote dlvoire2.2176Myanmar1.4116Mali2.7146Haiti2.2178Somalia1.1116Mongolia2.7146Iran2.2116Mozambique2.7146Libya2.22010 Corruption Perceptions Index. (Nearly three quarter of the 178 countries in the index score below five, on a scale from ten to zero. These resul ts indicate a serious corruption problem in the world.)THE HISTORY OF ALCOAAluminium was considered to be a semi-precious metal, this metal was so scarce that silver was much more popular during the middle of the1880s.Charles Martin house was a chemistry student at Oberlin College in Ohio, here he meet Professor Frank Jewett whom introduced his students to a small piece of aluminium and informed them that anyone producing this metal in an economical way would become rich. Halls passion for experimenting with minerals continued after his graduation, and he learnt how to produce alumina, aluminium oxide and created his own carbon crucible.On a February day in 1886 he discovered pure aluminium, for Hall to continue to produce this on a large scale he needed financial assistance. He gained assistance through a group of six industrialist led by Alfred Hunt. A company called Pittsburgh Reduction company was formed as part of the venture, and a small plant was built. In 1888 on Thanksgiv ing day Hall and Arthur Vining Davis, Halls first employee produced the first commercial aluminium using Halls technology.The company had out grown its name as it grew to include bauxite mines, a refinery and three aluminium smelters. The companies names was then changed by its owners to what they felt were more appropriate Aluminum accompany of America. As the company grew and became more global its name changed again and is currently called Alcoa Inc.Alcoa see itself as the worlds leading producer and manager of primary aluminium, alumina facilities and fictive aluminium. Some of the industries that Alcoa Servers include aerospace,automotive, building, construction, packaging, commercial transportation,engineering and Alcoa also promotes brands such as Reynolds Wrap (foil and plastic). Alcoa presently have approximately 123,000 employees in 44 countries in the world. Alcoa has been named by the earth Economic Forum in Davos Switzerland as one of the top sustainable corporations in the world.

Cystic Fibrosis Essay -- Biology Genetic Defect

CF is caused by an inherited recessive genetic defect that is most usual in the white population. About 1 in 23 people in the United States carry at least one defective gene, make it the most common genetic defect of its severity. CF patients suffer from chronic lung difficultys and digestive disorders caused by a cellular defect in the transport of chloride ion. The problem in chloride handling results in loss of chloride in sweat which, in fact, is the basis for the clinical diagnosis of CF. As a consequence of the lesion in chloride transport patients lungs become covered with sticky mucus which is difficult to remove and can promote infection by bacteria. Many people with CF have frequent hospitalizations and continuous usage of antibiotics, enzyme supplements, and other medications. In the past, the life expectancy of people with CF used to only be 8 years. However, with todays many checkup advances, the average life expectancy is just under 30 years and is continuing to in crease.Common cystic fibrosis symptoms involve high amounts of common salt (sodium and chloride) and potassium in sweat constant coughing and wheezing large amounts of mucus in the lungs recurring pneumonia failure to gain weight frequent, greasy, bulky, and strong-smelling bowel movements through the small bowel enlargement of fingertips and toes due to insufficient amount of oxygen in these areas Males with CF are sterile, and women who have CF can have problems with their menstrual cycles and becoming pregnant. CF slows down sexual development but brings no adverse effect upon it. Cystic Fibrosis Fact or Fiction?Woe to that child which when kissed on the hilltop tastes salty. He is... ...olyte composition affects bacterial survival which provides an explanation for why CF airways are not maintained as a sterile environment. The data speculates that the germicidal factor produced by airway epithelia may be a defensin-like molecule because it has characteristics of such factors. The results presented in the paper also link the molecular defect in CFTR Cl channels to the pathogenesis of CF lung disease. Most importantly the data suggests new approaches for therapy such as measurements of salt concentration and bactericidal activity may be clinically relevant assays for determining the effectiveness of potential therapeutic interventions. The data also raises the possibility that new interventions designed to correct the abnormally high salt concentration in CF fluid could be of benefit in treating or preventing airway infections in people with CF.

The Experimental Film, Fallen Angels Essay -- Movie Film Essays

The Experimental Film, Fallen AngelsThis experimental film makes use of a variety of camera shots to create a unique story that is at times funny, at times violent, and at times sad. It follows a man and a woman who are business partners he is a hit man and she tells him the target. They are attracted to each other, but he does not want to start a relationship for fear it will destroy their business relationship. He finds another girl and in the end decides to end the business relationship because his partner hind end not get over him. He does, however, agree to one more job, where he ends up getting killed by his target. There is also a analogue story of a young man who earns money by annoying people and his relationship with his father and the girl he likes. He helps this girl aim for the woman her boyfriend is cheating on her with and then the girl goes back to her boyfriend. In the end he meets the girl whose partner died and they ride off into the sundown on his motorcycle. A lthough there are two separate storylines that converge in the end, the story seems like its prett...